1st Edition

Land Subsidence Mitigation Aquifer Recharge Using Treated Wastewater Injection

By Frank R. Spellman Copyright 2018

    This book examines the process of injecting treated wastewater into wells to replenish aquifers, and thereby slow the process of land subsidence, and help to mitigate coastal flooding. It explains how up to fifty percent of sea-level rise may be due to land subsidence, and up to fifty percent of land subsidence may be due to aquifer compaction. The concepts covered discuss replenishing aquifers with clean water to reduce nutrient discharges into out-falled waterways; providing a sustainable supply of groundwater; reducing the rate of land subsidence; and protecting the groundwater from saltwater intrusion. Practical case studies from Virginia and California will be included.

    CONTENTS

    Preface

    Acknowledgements

    Author

    Conversions

    Acronyms and Abbreviations

    CHAPTER 1 THE UPSIDE-DOWN SOMBRERO

    Introduction

    About 33 to 35 Million Years Ago

    A Whole Bunch of Shock and Very Little Awe

    Meteorite Terms

    The Earth-Changing Event

    Effects of the Chesapeake Bay Bolide Impact

    Location of Chesapeake Bay

    River Diversion

    Ground Instability Due to Faulting

    Disruption of Coastal Aquifers

    Land Subsidence

    The Bottom Line

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 2 Soil Basics

    Introduction

    Soil what is it?

    Key Terms Defined

    All about Soil

    Functions of Soil

    Soil as a Plant Growth Medium

    Soil as a Regulator of Water Supplies

    Soil as a Recycler of Raw Materials

    Soil as a Habitat for soil Organisms

    Soil as an Engineering Medium

    Soil as a Source of Materials

    Concurrent Soil Functions

    Soil Basics

    Physical Properties of Soil

    Soil Separates

    Soil Formation

    Weathering

    Factors that Influence Weathering

    Categories of Weathering Processes

    Soil Characterization

    Diagnostic Horizons, Temperature, and Moisture Regimes

    Soil Taxonomy

    Soil Orders

    Soil Suborders

    Soil Great Groups and Subgroups

    Soil Families and Series

    The Bottom Line

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 3 The Science of Soil Mechanics

    Soil Mechanics

    Weight-Volume or Space and Volume Relationships

    Soil Particles Characteristics

    Soil Stress

    Soil Compressibility

    Soil Compaction

    Soil Failure

    Soil Water

    Water and Soil

    Water: What is it?

    Water Physical Properties

    The Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)

    Soil Water

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 4 Basic Water Hydraulics

    What is Water Hydraulics?

    Basic Concepts

    Stevin’s Law

    Density and Specific Gravity

    Force and Pressure

    Hydrostatic Pressure

    Effects of Water under Pressure

    Head

    Static Head

    Friction Head

    Velocity Head

    Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head)

    Pressure and Head

    Head and Pressure

    Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion

    Area and Velocity

    Pressure and Velocity

    Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem

    Conservation of Energy

    Energy Head

    Piezometric Surface

    Head Loss

    Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

    Bernoulli’s Theorem

    Bernoulli’s Equation

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 5 Groundwater Hydraulics

    Groundwater

    Unconfined Aquifers

    Saturated Zone

    Capillary Fringe

    Unsaturated Zone

    Capillarity

    Hydrologic Properties of Water-Bearing Materials

    Porosity

    Primary Porosity

    Secondary Porosity

    Controlling Porosity of Granular Materials

    Void Ratio

    Permeability

    Intrinsic Permeability

    Hydraulic Conductivity

    Transmissivity

    Water Yielding and Retaining Capacity

    Specific Yield

    Specific Retention

    Confined Aquifers

    Steady Flow of Groundwater

    Darcy’s Law

    Velocity

    Groundwater Flow and Effects of Pumping

    The 411 on Wells

    Shallow Wells

    Deep Wells

    Components of a Production Well

    Well Hydraulics

    Basic Well Hydraulics

    Well Drawdown Calculations

    Well Yield Calculations

    Specific Yield Calculations

    Depleting the Groundwater Bank Account

    Overdrawing the Groundwater Bank Account

    The Bottom Line

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 6 Land Subsidence

    Vanishing Land

    Withdrawal from the Groundwater Bank Account

    Effective Stress

    Preconsolidation Stress

    Aquitards Role in Compaction

    Subsidence Model of Antelope Valley

    Subsidence in Silicon Valley

    Mining Groundwater in the San Joaquin Valley

    Coastal Subsidence in Houston-Galveston Area

    In the "Meadows": Gambling is More than a Game

    Ground Failures

    Reduced Storage Capacity

    Earth Fissures and Subsidence in South-Central Arizona

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 7 The Vanishing of Hampton Roads

    Introduction

    Hampton Roads: Sea Level Rise

    Global Warming

    Greenhouse Effect

    Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

    Factors Involved with Global Warming/Cooling

    How is Climate Change Measured?

    Global Warming and Sea Level Rise

    Major Physical Effects of Sea Level Rise

    Major Direct Human Effects of Sea Level Rise

    Land Subsidence in Hampton Roads

    Why Land Subsidence is a Concern in the Chesapeake Bay Region

    Land Subsidence Contributes to Relative Sea Level Rise

    Land Subsidence Increases Flooding Risk

    Land Subsidence Can Damage Wetland and Coastal Marsh Ecosystems

    Land Subsidence Can Damage Infrastructure

    Aquifer Compaction

    Glacial Isostatic Adjustment

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 8 Measuring and Monitoring Land Subsidence

    Measuring Subsidence

    Borehole Extensometers

    Tidal Stations

    Geodetic Survey

    InSAR

    Importance of Land Subsidence Monitoring

    Monitoring Methods

    Borehole Extensometers—Ongoing Monitoring

    Geodetic Surveying—Ongoing Monitoring 2016

    Tidal Stations—Ongoing Monitoring 2016

    Remote Sensing—Ongoing Monitoring 2016

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 9 Every Problem has a Solution

    Hampton Roads Sanitation District (HRSD)

    The Solution to Pollution in Chesapeake Bay

    The Problem

    Objectives

    The Nansemond Treatment Plant Extensometer Plan

    Extensometer Station Design

    Extensometer Station Monitoring Program

    The Plan

    The Bottom Line

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 10 Potomac Aquifer System

    Introduction

    The Potomac Formation

    Injection Wells

    Subsidence Control Wells

    Injection Well Hydraulics

    Injection Operation

    Injection Well Capacity Estimation

    Estimating Specific Capacity and Injectivity

    Available Head for Injection

    Flexibility for Adjusting Injection Well Capacities

    Number of Injection Wells Required at each Wastewater Treatment Plant

    Aquifer Injection Modeling

    Mathematical Modeling

    Groundwater Flow Modeling

    Modeling Results

    Army Base Treatment Plant

    Boat Harbor Treatment Plant

    James River Treatment Plant

    Nansemond Treatment Plant

    Virginia Initiative Plant

    Williamsburg Treatment Plant

    York River Treatment Plant

    Sensitivity of Aquifer Parameters

    Transmissivity

    Storage Coefficient

    Injection Rates

    Simulation Duration

    Static Water Elevations

    Well Interference

    Hampton Roads Region Groundwater Flow

    Model Injection Rates

    Model Duration

    The Bottom Line

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 11 Native Groundwater and Injectate Compatibility

    Introduction

    HRSD’s Water Management Vision

    Geochemical Challenges Facing SWIFT Project

    Reduction in Injectivity

    Physical Plugging

    Mineral Precipitation

    Geochemical Concerns

    Damaging Clay Minerals

    Mineral precipitation

    Mineral Dissolution

    Water Quality and Aquifer Mineralogy

    Injectate Water Chemistry

    Reverse Osmosis

    Nanofiltration

    Biologically Activated Carbon

    Native Groundwater

    Upper Potomac Aquifer Zone

    Middle Potomac Aquifer Zone

    Lower Potomac Aquifer Zone

    Geochemical Assessment of Injectate and Groundwater Chemistry

    Lithology of the Potomac Aquifer System

    Lithology

    City of Chesapeake Aquifer Storage and Recovery Facility Core Samples

    Mineralogy—Geochemical Modeling

    Stability of Clay Minerals

    Simulated Injectate—Water Interactions

    Mixing

    Mixing Injectate and Native Groundwater

    Mixing in the Injection Wellbore

    Injectate and Aquifer Mineral Reactions

    Siderite Dissolution

    Pyrite Oxidation

    Mitigating Pyrite Oxidation

    The Bottom Line

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 12 Feasibility of Advanced Water Purification Processes

    Introduction

    By the Book Only, Please!

    Those Playing by the Book in Indirect Potable

    Additional Drinking Water Considerations

    Injectate Water Quality Concerns

    Advanced Water Treatment Processes

    Treatment Plant Effluent Water Quality

    Data Sources for Evaluation

    Data Evaluation

    Advanced Treatment Product Water Quality

    Inorganic Water Quality

    Organic Water Quality

    Bulk Organics

    Trace Organics

    RO Concentrate Disposal

    Pathogen Removal

    Disinfection By-Products

    Anticipated Improvements to HRSD’s Existing WWTPs

    The Bottom Line

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 13 Membrane Concentrate Management

    Introduction

    Evaluation Results

    Regulatory Setting for Surface Water Discharges

    Potential Future Membrane Concentrate Permit Requirements

    Discharges in Accordance with Permits Allowing Similar Pollutant Discharge

    Discharges Based on Additional Concentrate Treatment to Reduce Key Pollutants

    Treatment of Reverse Osmosis/Nanofiltration Concentration

    Treatment Requirements Based on Discharge Objectives

    Discharge in Accordance with Current Permits

    Discharges Based on Additional Concentrate Treatment

    Nutrient Discharge Comparison for Current and Projected Treatment Options

    Projected Pollutant Loading from Treatment Options

    The Bottom Line

    References and Recommended Reading

    CHAPTER 14 Cost Estimates

    Introduction

    Cost Estimating Approach

    Treatment Trains

    Injection Well Facilities

    Approach and Assumptions

    Standard Project Analysis

    Capital Cost Plant Facility Model

    Injection Well Facility Costs

    Operations and Maintenance Costs

    Design Criteria

    Cost Estimates

    Capital and Annual Operating Costs

    Net Present Value

    Define Period Analysis

    Calculate Annual Cash Flows

    Select a Discount Rate

    Calculate the Present Value

    Net Present Value for each AWT Train

    The Bottom Line

    References and Recommended Reading

    Afterword or Beforehand

    Glossary

    Biography

    Frank R. Spellman, PhD, is a retired assistant professor of environmental health at Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, and the author of more than 110 books covering topics ranging from concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) to all areas of environmental science and occupational health. Many of his texts are readily available online, and several have been adopted for classroom use at major universities throughout the United States, Canada, Europe, and Russia; two have been translated into Spanish for South American markets. Dr. Spellman has been cited in more than 850- publications. He serves as a professional expert witness for three law groups and as an incident/accident investigator for the U.S. Department of Justice and a northern Virginia law firm. In addition, he consults on homeland security vulnerability assessments for critical infrastructures including water/wastewater facilities nationwide and conducts pre-Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)/Environmental Protection Agency EPA audits throughout the country. Dr. Spellman receives frequent requests to co-author with well-recognized experts in several scientific fields; for example, he is a contributing author of the prestigious text The Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed. (CRC Press). Dr. Spellman lectures on sewage treatment, water treatment, biosolids and homeland security and lectures and safety topics throughout the country and teaches water/wastewater operator short courses at Virginia Tech (Blacksburg, Virginia). He holds a BA, in public administration, a BS in business management, an MBA, and an MS and PhD in environmental engineering.