1st Edition
Six Sigma for Powerful Improvement A Green Belt DMAIC Training System with Software Tools and a 25-Lesson Course
Although the Six Sigma Define-Measure-Analyze-Improve-Control (DMAIC) methodology is a widely accepted tool for achieving efficient management of all aspects of operations, there are still many unwarranted concerns about its perceived complexity and implementation costs. Dispelling these myths, Six Sigma for Powerful Improvement: A Green Belt DMAIC Training System with Software Tools and a 25-Lesson Course clarifies the long-accepted statistical and logical processes of Six Sigma and provides you with tools you can use again and again in your own "real world" projects—removing any doubts regarding their simplicity and "doability.".
Not only does the book provide you with reasons for using the tools, it reveals the underlying doctrines, formulas, and steps required. Although the tools and techniques presented are specifically associated with the DMAIC philosophy, they are applicable across a wide range of management and improvement scenarios. Explaining Six Sigma processes in language that's easy to understand, the book starts with an overview, followed by specific techniques and procedures. It presents detailed, illustrated lesson segments that include an agenda, roadmap, objectives, and a list of takeaway concepts. It also:
- Provides seven separate Excel tool templates—each with its own user guide and additional smaller tools
- Presents completed Excel sample workbooks for each tool to facilitate your comprehension and utilization confidence
- Includes downloadable resources with a PowerPoint-based DMAIC training course, the aforementioned Excel-based Six Sigma tools and workbooks, and extensive instructor’s notes embedded in each lesson
Trained as and employed as a Black Belt and later as a Master Black Belt, the author presents doctrines and procedures with a strong pedigree and history of success. The book uses hundreds of figures and tables to illustrate key concepts and also makes them available in full-color on the downloadable resources. This is also true of the figures in the user guides that document the accompanying tools. For each of the tools, the book includes a completed sample workbook. The PowerPoint and Excel lessons and tools are provided in both 2007 and 97-2003 versions.
DEFINE PHASE
Define Phase Overview
Define Phase Orientation within DMAIC
Define Phase Objectives
Identify Preliminary Requirements: Step 1
ID Preliminary Requirements Orientation within DMAIC
The Define Phase
Identification of CTQ Requirements of Your Customer
Sources of Customer Data
Voice of the Customer
Determining the VOC
CTQ Capture Guidelines
Tool Training: Voice of the Customer
What is the Voice of the Customer?
Why Care about the Voice of the Customer?
Where do You Hear the Voice of Your Customer?
The VOC Listening Process
Role of Customer Segmentation in VOC Listening Strategies
Information Segmentation/Categorization
How Should You Listen to Customers?
Interviews
Focus Groups
Surveys
Tool Selection and Using Tools in Combination
Sampling Bias
Instrumentation Bias
Response Bias
Sources of Bias
Response Bias Exercise
How do You Control Bias?
Organizing and Analyzing the Collected Voices of Your Customers
Affinity Diagrams
Structure Trees
Prioritizing Needs with Kano Analysis
Prioritizing Needs Through Customer Feedback
Working with Critical-to-Quality Requirements
Setting Targets and Specifications for CTQs
Introduction to Quality Function Deployment
Communicating the VOC Learning
Principles of Listening and Sharing Learning
Key Audiences
Developing the Communication Plan
Link Business/Organizational Strategy Success to CTQ Fulfillment
Research Ethics
Develop Team Charter: Step 2
Orientation within DMAIC
Project Charter
Five Major Elements of a Charter
Business Case
Problem and Goal Statements
Project Scope
In/Out Frame Tool
Milestones
Project Roles
Stakeholder List
ARMI Model
Team Roles
Team Formation and the GRPI Checklist and Assessment
Good versus Bad Projects
Define a High-Level Process Map: Step 3
Orientation within DMAIC
What is a Process?
Elements of a Process: SIPOC
Levels of Processes
Categories of Processes
Process Mapping
Benefits of Process Mapping
Perceptions of Processes
Build the Process Map
Evaluating a Process Map
Impacts Resulting From the Building and Analysis of Process Maps
Measure Phase
MEASURE PHASE
Measure Phase Overview
Orientation to the Measure Phase
Measure Phase Activity Synopsis
Objectives
Using Statistics to Solve Problems
Selecting Relevant CTQ Characteristics and/or Project Ys
Defining Performance Standards
Measurement Systems Analysis
Using Statistics to Characterize Processes
Measure Phase Deliverables
Select Critical-to-Quality Characteristics: Step 4
Orientation within DMAIC
Objectives
Quality Function Deployment
The QFD "Opportunity"
Formal Definition of QFD
Quality Function Deployment Flow
Building a "House of Quality
Abbreviated Example of a Service-Oriented QFD Using a Different Form
Common QFD/House of Quality Pitfalls
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
FMEA Calculations
Excel FMEA Tool
Building an FMEA
Data Types
Why is Data Type Important?
Tool Training: Excel Quality Function Deployment Workbook
Introduction
"Home" Worksheet
The QFD Administrative Worksheet
QFD Stakeholder Worksheet
Stakeholder Representative Worksheet
CTQ Initial List Worksheet
Stakeholder CTQ Importance Survey Worksheet
Stakeholder CTQ Priorities Worksheet
CTQ Priority Worksheet
Process Member List Worksheet
The Process Member List Filter
The Scratchpad Worksheet
Process Impact Worksheets (3)
Assessing/Scoring Process Members’ Effect on CTQ Satisfaction
The Process Rank Worksheets (3) Summary
Define Performance Standards: Step 5
Objectives
Performance Standards
Purpose of Performance Standards
Operational Definitions for Performance Standard
Operational Definition Exercise
Tool to Use in Operational Definition Exercise
Review Basic Nature of Data
How Discrete Data Varies from Continuous Data
Completing the Performance Standard
Tool Training: 7 Process Improvement Tools
Objectives
Scatter Plot Charts
Build a Scatter Plot
Run Charts/Control Charts
Continuous Data Run/Control Charts
Average and Standard Deviation Charts (X-Bar and s Charts)
Discrete Data Run/Control Charts
Summary of Chart Selection Logic
Checksheets
Histograms
Making a Histogram in Excel
Pareto Charts
A Specialized Histogram: The Boxplot
Stratification Diagrams
Cause-and-Effect (Fishbone/Ishikawa) Diagrams
Establish Data Collection Plan and Measurement System Analysis: Step 6
Orientation within DMAIC
Objectives
Data Collection Plan
Items to Consider
Pre-Data Collection Steps
During the Collection
Post-Data Collection Steps
Sample Data Collection Plan
Controlling the Measurement Environment
Sources of Measurement Environment Variation
Measurement System Analysis
Measurement Gauge Requirements
An MSA Checklist
Test/Retest Study
Test/Retest Study Example
Gauge Reproducibility and Repeatability Studies
Analyzing Gauge R&R with Attribute Data (AR&R)
Excel Attribute Gauge R&R and Equipment Gauge R&R Tools Provided with This Book
Excel Attribute Gauge R&R Tool
Excel Equipment Gauge R&R Tool
Working with Sample Size
Gauge R&R: Temporal Effects
ANALYZE PHASE
Analyze Phase Overview
Objectives
Orientation within DMAIC
Step 7: Establish Process Capability
How Do You Determine the Performance Objective?
Step 8: Define Improvement Objective for Y
Step 9: Identify Sources of Variation (Problems)
Establish Process Capability: Step 7
Orientation within DMAIC
Objectives
Basic Statistics Review
Distributions
The Normal Curve
Working with Continuous Data
Calculating Z (Z-Score)
Calculating Capability
Process Centering
Rational Subgrouping
Components of Variation
Working with Discrete Data
Discrete Data Definitions
Linking DPO to the Probability of a Defect
Sigma Product Report (L-1)
Process Yield
Can you Achieve Six Sigma Through Inspections?
Quantification of Defects: Escaping Defects
Tying It All Together
Define Performance Objectives: Step 8
Orientation within DMAIC
Objectives
Defining Process Objectives
Benchmarking
Nature of Benchmarking
Types of Benchmarking
Benchmarking Concept versus Process
What Benchmarking IS and ISN’T
Common Benchmarking Mistakes
Points to Remember and Questions to Ask about Benchmarking
Sources of Information for Benchmarking
Identify Sources of Variation and Waste (Problems): Step 9
Orientation of the Identify Variation Sources Step within DMAIC
Objectives
Focus of Improvement
Tools to Identify Variation Sources
Cause-and-Effect (Fishbone/Ishikawa) Diagram
Alternative Cause-and-Effect Exhibits
Pareto Diagrams
Building a Pareto Chart
Process Maps
Nature of Work: Value Analysis
Process Map Analysis: Flow of Work
Process Disconnects
Cycle Time Analysis
Process Map Analysis: Interpretation
Excel Process Map Analysis Tool
Value-Stream Maps
Hypothesis Testing
Idea of Sampling
Sampling Methods
Data Analysis
Studying Stability
Studying Normality
Working with Non-normal Data
Working with Normal Data: Discrete X and Continuous Y
t-Distribution and Small Samples
Conducting Tests on Variances: ANOVA
ANOVA in General
One-Factor ANOVA Tests
Two-Factor ANOVA Tests without Replication
Testing for Goodness of Fit and Independence
Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Tests
Chi-Square Independence Tests
Sample Size, Degrees of Freedom: Confidence Intervals
Using the Confidence Interval Formula for Continuous Data to Derive Sample Size Formula
Using the Confidence Interval Formula for Continuous Data to Derive Attainable Precision Given a Maximum Sample Size
Three Ways to Estimate σ When It is Unknown
Excel Calculator for Sample Requirements for Confidence Levels and Process Improvements
Discrete Sample Sizes
Confidence Interval Calculator
Samples Needed to Confirm Defect Factor Reductions
Summary of Process and Population Sampling
Certify Process Problems
Tool Training: Change Acceptance Management
Objectives
Nature of Change and Force Field Analysis
Dilemma of Change
Change Acceptance Management Methods and Techniques
Creating a Shared Need
Shaping the Vision
Mobilizing Commitment
Changing Systems and Structures
What are Systems and Structures?
What Portions of Systems and Structures Do You Want to Influence?
Internal Process of Change
Tool Training: Project Solution Recommendation Package Tool
Objectives
Use of the Project Solution Recommendation Package Tool
Layout of the Excel Project Solution Recommendation Package Tool
Using the Project Solution Recommendation Package Tool
CTQ List Worksheet
Solution Packages Worksheet
Solution-CTQ Map Worksheet
The Options–Estimates Worksheet
The Selected Solutions Worksheet
IMPROVE PHASE
Improve Phase Overview
Orientation within DMAIC
Improve Phase Objectives
Key Points to Consider
Improve Phase Strategy
Improvement Goal
Identify Vital Xs for a Given Y
Characterization of Xs
Experimenting with the Process
Testing Theories
DOE
Examples of Approaches and Solutions to Problems
Pilots
Pilot High-Level Steps
Experimenting and Piloting: Step 10 (Screen Potential Causes) and Step 11 (Discover Variable Relationships)
Orientation within DMAIC
Objectives
Improvement by Design
Design by Experimentation
Experiment Plan
Experiment Result Reports
Experimental Strategies: Design of Experiments
"Stick with a Winner"
One Factor at a Time (OFAT)
Factorial Layouts, Full and Fractional
Visualizing the Experimental Space
Factorial Patterns of Experimentation
Reducing the Sizes of Experiments
Fractional Factoring
Properties of a Properly Selected Half-Fraction Factorial Design
Confounding
Replication
Randomization: Experimenter’s Insurance
Running Experiments
Experiment Definitions
Collecting the Experimental Data
Analyzing the Experimental Data
Factor Control Table
Experimental Raw Results
Examine Factor Effects
Excel 8-Run DOE Tool
Chart Worksheet Added to 8-Run DOE Tool
Screening Designs
Adaptation of the 8-Run DOE Tool to Run 8 Factor Plackett–Burman Analyses
Piloting
When Should You Pilot
How Should You Prepare to Pilot?
Measure the Pilot Performance and Analyze Its Results
Pilot-Information Technology (IT) Linkages
Piloting Tips and Traps
Confirming Solutions, Setting Tolerances, and Documenting: Step 12
Orientation within DMAIC
Objectives
Selecting Final Experiments
Detectable Effect Size
Using the DES Formula
Finalize Response Variables to Control
Establishing Tolerances
Principles of Tolerancing
Tolerancing Example: A Weight-Loss Program
Tolerance Summary
Simulation
Why Use Simulation?
When Should You Use Simulation?
Modeling and Simulation Processes
Monte Carlo Simulation
Stochastic Model Example
Deterministic Simulation
Deterministic Models
Building and Executing a Deterministic Model
Documentation
Why Do We Document?
Who is the Audience for Process Documentation?
What is Included in Process Documentation?
What Formats Should Be Used for Process Documentation?
Documentation Tips
CONTROL PHASE
Control Phase Overview
Orientation of Control Phase within DMAIC
Control
Control Objectives
Maintaining Control
Process Standardization
Primary Control Mechanisms
Confirming Your Solution before Implementation
Assess the Effectiveness of Your Improvement
Make Your Improvements Permanent
Project Closeout
Validate Measurement System and Confirm Solution to Management: Step
Orientation within DMAIC
Objectives
Validate and Make Provision for the Measurement System for Post-Implementation Use
Confirm Your Solution to Management
CTQ Score
Short-Term Sigma Improvement
Costs and Benefits
Build Process Control Plan: Step 14
Orientation within DMAIC
Objectives
What is a Quality or Control Plan?
Quality Plan versus Control Plan: What is the Difference?
Example of Control Plan Exhibit
Keys to Process Controls
The Monitoring Process
How Can You Detect Changes in Your Process?
The Auditing Process
Additional Example of a Process Control Plan
Risk Management
Key Steps of Risk Management
Methods to Identify Risks
The Elements of Risk
Rating Your Risks: Two Excel-Based Tools
Risk Management Calculator for Projects and Processes
Risk Calculation Procedures for the Risk Calculator
FMEA and Risk Mitigation Tool
The FMEA Worksheet
Mistake Proofing
Types of Human Error
Mistake Proofing Techniques
The Control Plan
Transfer Solution to Process Owner and Close Project: Step 15
Orientation within DMAIC Objectives
Conduct a Structured Transition
Recommend System and Structure Modifications to Retain your Improvements
Turnover Briefings
Training and Orientation Packages
Project Storyboard
Project Storyboard Contents
Process Transfer Documentation
SPC Recommendations
Selecting Appropriate Charts
Closing Your Project
Administrative Tasks
Implementation Summary
Lessons Learned
IT-Specific Tasks (When Appropriate)
Project Wrap-Up Summary Document
Appendix
Index
Biography
Charles Carroll is an independent consultant. Initially educated at the U.S. Naval Academy, he later earned an MS in Systems Management at the University of Southern California and served as a Supply, Logistics and Systems Officer in the Marine Corps. He then worked at Sprint Corporation and General Electric’s Employers Reinsurance Corporation (ERC), where he was trained and certified as an internal consultant in GE’s Six Sigma Quality processes,served as a Master Black Belt for the IT Department, administered the local and offshore outsourcing programs, automated project management, and established a global Project Management Office within ERC’s IT department.
Charlie serves as an independent consultant in project/program/PMO management, process improvement, and application development. He has written articles for a number of professional publications, spoken at domestic and international conferences, and developed a number of project management and Six Sigma tools and training for clients. He can be reached at [email protected].
