2nd Edition

Plasma Electronics Applications in Microelectronic Device Fabrication

By Toshiaki Makabe, Zoran Lj. Petrovic Copyright 2015
    412 Pages 176 B/W Illustrations
    by CRC Press

    412 Pages 176 B/W Illustrations
    by CRC Press

    Beyond enabling new capabilities, plasma-based techniques, characterized by quantum radicals of feed gases, hold the potential to enhance and improve many processes and applications. Following in the tradition of its popular predecessor, Plasma Electronics, Second Edition: Applications in Microelectronic Device Fabrication explains the fundamental physics and numerical methods required to bring these technologies from the laboratory to the factory.

    Emphasizing computational algorithms and techniques, this updated edition of a popular monograph supplies a complete and up-to-date picture of plasma physics, computational methods, applications, and processing techniques. Reflecting the growing importance of computer-aided approaches to plasma analysis and synthesis, it showcases recent advances in fabrication from micro- and nano-electronics, MEMS/NEMS, and the biological sciences.

    A helpful resource for anyone learning about collisional plasma structure, function, and applications, this edition reflects the latest progress in the quantitative understanding of non-equilibrium low-temperature plasma, surface processing, and predictive modeling of the plasma and the process. Filled with new figures, tables, problems, and exercises, it includes a new chapter on the development of atmospheric-pressure plasma, in particular microcell plasma, with a discussion of its practical application to improve surface efficiency.

    The book provides an up-to-date discussion of MEMS fabrication and phase transition between capacitive and inductive modes in an inductively coupled plasma. In addition to new sections on the phase transition between the capacitive and inductive modes in an ICP and MOS-transistor and MEMS fabrications, the book presents a new discussion of heat transfer and heating of the media and the reactor.

    Integrating physics, numerical methods, and practical applications, this book equips you with the up-to-date understanding required to scale up lab breakthroughs into industrial innovations.

    Introduction
    Plasma and Its Classification
    Application of Low Temperature Plasma
    Academic Fusion
    References

    Phenomenological Description of the Charged Particle Transport
    Transport in Real (Configuration) Space
         Momentum Balance of Electrons 
         Energy Balance of Electrons
    Transport in Velocity Space 
         Electron Velocity Distribution and Swarm Parameters 
         Ion Velocity Distribution and Mean Energy
    Thermal Equilibrium and its Governing Relations
         Boltzmann Distribution in Real Space 
         Maxwell Distribution in Velocity Space
    References

    Macroscopic Plasma Characteristics
    Introduction
    Quasi Neutrality
    Charge separation In Plasmas 
         Spatial Scale of Charge-Separation 
         Time Scale for Charge-Separation
    Plasma Shielding 
         Debye Shielding 
         Metal Probe in a Plasma
    Particle Diffusion 
         Ambipolar Diffusion 
         Spatial and Time Scale of Diffusion
    Bohm Sheath Criterion 
         Bohm Velocity 
         Floating Potential
    References

    Elementary Processes in Gas Phase and on Surfaces
    Particles and Waves
         Particle Representation in Classical and Quantum Mechanics 
         Locally Isolated Particle Group and Wave Packets
    Collisions and Cross Sections 
         Conservation Laws in Collisions 
         Definition of Collision Cross Sections 
         The Distribution of Free Paths 
         Representation of Collisions in Laboratory and CM Reference Frames
    Classical Collision Theory
         Scattering in Classical Mechanics 
         Conditions for the Applicability of the Classical Scattering Theory
    Quantum Theory Of Scattering
         Differential Scattering Cross Section σ(θ)
         Modified Effective Range Theory in Electron Scattering
    Collisions Between Electrons And Neutral Atoms/Molecules 
         Resonant Scattering
    Electron–Atom Collisions 
         Energy Levels of Atoms 
         Electron–Atom Scattering Cross Sections
    Electron–Molecule Collisions 
          Rotational, Vibrational, and Electronic Energy Levels of Molecules 
         Rotational Excitation 
              Rotational Energy Levels 
              Rotational Excitation Cross Sections 
         Vibrational Excitation
              Vibrational Energy Levels
              Vibrational Cross Sections 
         Electronic Excitation and Dissociation 
              Electronic States of Molecules 
              Cross Sections for Electronic Excitation of Molecules 
         Electron Collisions with Excited Atoms and Molecules
    Nonconservative Collisions of Electrons With Atoms and Molecules 
         Electron-Induced Ionization 
         Electron Attachment 
              Dissociative Electron Attachment 
              Nondissociative Electron Attachment
              Ion Pair Formation 
              Electron Attachment to Excited Molecules 
              Rate Coefficients for Attachment
         Electron–Ion and Ion–Ion Recombination 
         Electron–Ion and Electron–Electron Collisions
    Heavy Particle Collisions 
         Ion–Molecule Collisions 
              Charge Transfer, Elastic, and Inelastic Scattering of Ions 
              Ion–Molecule Reactions 
         Collisions of Fast Neutrals 
         Collisions of Excited Particles 
              Chemi-Ionization and Penning Ionization
         Collisions of Slow Neutrals and Rate Coefficients 
              Quenching and Transport of Excited States 
              Kinetics of Rotational and Vibrational Levels
    Photons in Ionized Gases 
         Emission and Absorption of Line Radiation 
         Resonant Radiation Trapping
    Elementary Processes at Surfaces 
         Energy Levels of Electrons in Solids 
         Emission of Electrons from Surfaces 
              Photo-Emission 
              Thermionic Emission 
              Field-Induced Emission 
              Potential Ejection of Electrons from Surfaces by Ions and Excited Atoms 
         Emission of Ions and Neutrals from Surfaces 
              Surface Neutralization 
              Surface Ionization 
              Adsorption
    References

    The Boltzmann Equation and Transport Equations of Charged Particles
    Introduction
    The Boltzmann Equation 
         Transport in Phase Space and Derivation of the Boltzmann Equation
    Transport Coefficients
    The Transport Equation
         Conservation of Number Density 
         Conservation of Momentum 
         Conservation of Energy
    Collision Term In The Boltzmann Equation 
         Collision Integral
         Collision Integral between an Electron and a Gas Molecule 
              Elastic Collision Term Jelas 
              Excitation Collision Term Jex 
              Ionization Collision Term Jion 
              Electron Attachment Collision Term Jatt
    Boltzmann Equation For Electrons
         Spherical Harmonics and Their Properties 
         Velocity Distribution of Electrons 
              Velocity Distribution under Uniform Number Density: g0 
              Velocity Distribution Proportional to ∇rn(r, t): g1 
         Electron Transport Parameters
    References

    General Properties of Charged Particle Transport in Gases
    Introduction
    Electron Transport In DC Electric Fields 
         Electron Drift Velocity
         Diffusion Coefficients
         Mean Energy of Electrons 
         Excitation, Ionization, and Electron Attachment Rates
    Electron Transport in Radio Frequency Electric Fields
         Relaxation Time Constants
         Effective Field Approximation
         Expansion Procedure 
         Direct Numerical Procedure 
         Time-Varying Swarm Parameters
    Ion Transport In Dc Electric Fields
    References

    Modeling of Nonequilibrium (Low Temperature) Plasmas
    Introduction
    Continuum Models 
         Governing Equations of a Continuum Model 
         Local Field Approximation (LFA) 
         Quasi-Thermal Equilibrium (QTE) Model
         Relaxation Continuum (RCT) Model 
         Phase Space Kinetic Model
    Particle Models 
         Monte Carlo Simulations (MCSs)
         Particle-in-Cell (PIC) and Particle-in-Cell/Monte Carlo Simulation (PIC/MCS) Models
    Hybrid Models
    Circuit Model
         Equivalent Circuit Model in CCP
         Equivalent Circuit Model in ICP
         Transmission-Line Model (TLM)
    Electromagnetic Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 
         Coulomb’s Law, Gauss’s Law, and Poisson’s Equation 
         Faraday’s Law
         Ampere’s Law 
         Maxwell’s Equations
    References

    Numerical Procedure of Modeling
    Time Constant of the System
         Collision-Oriented Relaxation Time
         Plasma Species-Oriented Time Constant 
         Plasma-Oriented Time Constant/Dielectric Relaxation Time
    Numerical Techniques To Solve The Time Dependent Drift
    Diffusion Equation 
         Time-Evolution Method 
              Finite Difference 
              Digitalization and Stabilization 
              Time Discretization and Accuracy 
         Scharfetter–Gummel Method 
         Cubic Interpolated Pseudoparticle Method
         Semi-Implicit Method for Solving Poisson’s Equation
    Boundary Conditions 
         Ideal Boundary — Without Surface Interactions 
              Dirichlet Condition 
              Neumann Condition 
              Periodicity Condition
         Electrode Surface 
              Metallic Electrode 
              Dielectric Electrode 
         Boundary Conditions with Charge Exchange 
         Boundary Conditions with Mass Transport 
              Plasma Etching
              Plasma Deposition
              Plasma Sputtering 
         Moving Boundary under Processing
    References

    Capacitively Coupled Plasma
    Radio Frequency Capacitive Coupling
    Mechanism of Plasma Maintenance
         Low-Frequency Plasma 
         High-Frequency Plasma
         Electronegative Plasma
         Very High-Frequency Plasma
         Two-Frequency Plasma
         Pulsed Two-Frequency Plasma
    References

    Inductively Coupled Plasma
    Radio Frequency Inductive Coupling
    Mechanism of Plasma Maintenance
         E-mode and H-mode 
         Mechanism of Plasma Maintenance
         Effect of Metastables 
         Function of ICP
    Phase Transition Between E-Mode and H-Mode in an ICP
    Wave Propagation in Plasmas
         Plasma and Skin Depth 
         ICP and the Skin Depth
    References

    Magnetically Enhanced Plasma
    Direct Current Magnetron Plasma
    Unbalanced Magnetron Plasma
    Radio Frequency Magnetron Plasma
    Magnetic Confinements Of Plasmas
    Magnetically Resonant Plasmas
    References

    Plasma Processing and Related Topics
    Introduction
    Physical Sputtering
         Target Erosion
         Sputtered Particle Transport
    Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition
         Plasma CVD
         Large-Area Deposition with High Rate
    Plasma Etching
         Wafer Bias 
              On Electrically Isolated Wafers (without Radio-Frequency Bias) 
              On Wafers with Radio-Frequency Bias 
         Selection of Feed Gas 
         Si or Poly-Si Etching
         Al Etching
         SiO2 Etching 
         Feature Profile Evolution 
         Plasma Bosch Process 
         Charging Damage 
              Surface Continuity and Conductivity 
              Charging Damage to Lower Thin Elements in ULSI 
         Thermal Damage
         Specific Fabrication of MOS Transistor 
              Gate Etching 
              Contact Hole Etching 
              Low-K Etching
         MEMS Fabrication
    References

    Atmospheric Pressure, Low Temperature Plasma
    High Pressure, Low Temperature Plasma 
         Fundamental Process 
         Historical Development
    Micro Plasma
         Radiofrequency Atmospheric Micro-Plasma Source
         Gas Heating in a Plasma
         Effect of Local Gas Heating
    References
    Index

    Biography

    Toshiaki Makabe received his BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering all from Keio University. He became a Professor of Electronics and Electrical Engineering in the Faculty of Science and Technology at Keio University in 1991. He also served as a guest professor at POSTECH, Ruhr University Bochum, and Xi’an Jiaotong University. He was Dean of the Faculty of Science and Technology and Chair of the Graduate School from 2007 to 2009. Since 2009, he has been the Vice-President of Keio University in charge of research. He has published more than 170 papers in peer-reviewed international journals, and has given invited talks at more than 80 international conferences in the field of non-equilibrium, low-temperature plasmas and related basic transport theory, and surface processes. He is on the editorial board of Plasma Sources Science and Technology, and many times he has been a guest editor of the special issue about the low temperature plasma and the surface process of the Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, Australian Journal of Physics, Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A, IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, and Applied Surface Science, etc. He received the awards; "Fluid Science Prize" in 2003 from the Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University, "Plasma Electronics Prize" in 2004 from the Japan Society of Applied Physics, "Plasma Prize" in 2006 from the American Vacuum Society, etc. He is an associate member of the Science Council of Japan, and a foreign member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He is a fellow of the Institute of Physics, the American Vacuum Society, the Japan Society of Applied Physics, and the Japan Federation of Engineering Societies.

    Zoran Lj. Petrovic obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering in the University of Belgrade, and earned his Ph.D from Australian National University. He is the Head of the Department of Experimental Physics in the Institute of Physics, University of Belgrade. He has taught postgraduate courses in microelectronics, plasma kinetics and diagnostics and was a visiting professor in Keio University (Yokohama, Japan). He has received the Nikola Tesla award for technological achievement and the Marko Jaric Award for Great Achievement in Physics. He is a full member of the Academy of Engineering Sciences of Serbia and Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts where he chairs the department of engineering science. Zoran Petrovic is a fellow of American Physical Society, vice president of the National Scientific Council of Serbia, and president of the Association of Scientific Institutes of Serbia. He is a member of editorial boards of Plasma Sources Science and Technology and Europena Physical Journal D. He has authored or co-authored over 220 papers in leading international scientific journals, and has given more than 90 invited talks at professional conferences. His research interests include atomic and molecular collisions in ionized gases, transport phenomena in ionized gases, gas breakdown, RF and DC plasmas for plasma processing, plasma medicine, positron collisions and traps, and basic properties of gas discharges.

    "This text serves both the expert and the newcomer with background and state-of-the-art knowledge of plasma electronics. It should be on the bookshelf of anyone exploiting plasma technology for device fabrication. Clearly written and well illustrated, it is also suitable as a postgraduate teaching text and, having been updated, may be a standard reference for the next decade."
    —Nigel J. Mason, Professor, Department of Physical Sciences, The Open University

    "This book is a unique and invaluable source of insight and clarity with special strengths in treating charged particle-neutral collisions, rigorously generalized with proper kinetic theory. This rigor in analyzing discharge physics fundamentals makes the subsequent treatment of plasma modeling and surface modification applications in microelectronics even more valuable. It will no doubt become a standard reference for all scientists and engineers interested in weakly ionized, non-equilibrium plasmas."
    —David B. Graves, Professor and Lam Research Distinguished Chair, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley

    "… unique in the low-temperature plasma literature for the breadth of its aims and wide-ranging scope, and I would strongly recommend as a reference for postgraduate students in the field."
    —Robert E. Robson, Professor, James Cook University

    "This book discusses the fundamental principles of partially ionized, chemically reactive plasma discharges and their use in thin film processing … a well-written book for plasma engineers and scientists. … [they] will benefit a lot from this book …"
    —Hong-Young Chang, Professor, Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)

    "A unique textbook written by two of the most outstanding scientists in the field … A very valuable part of the book is devoted to modeling and numerical simulation … an indispensable source of knowledge and an excellent reference for all kinds of basic phenomena."
    —Uwe Czarnetzki, Professor and Chair, Faculty of Physics and Astronomy, Ruhr-Universität Bochum

    "The book offers a truly excellent account on the fundamental physics of low-temperature plasmas and applications of low-temperature plasmas to other scientific disciplines and technologies. I strongly recommend this book to both newcomers as a high-standard introductory textbook and experts as a comprehensive reference."
    —Satoshi Hamaguchi, Professor, Center for Atomic and Molecular Technologies, Osaka University