1st Edition
Land Subsidence Mitigation Aquifer Recharge Using Treated Wastewater Injection
This book examines the process of injecting treated wastewater into wells to replenish aquifers, and thereby slow the process of land subsidence, and help to mitigate coastal flooding. It explains how up to fifty percent of sea-level rise may be due to land subsidence, and up to fifty percent of land subsidence may be due to aquifer compaction. The concepts covered discuss replenishing aquifers with clean water to reduce nutrient discharges into out-falled waterways; providing a sustainable supply of groundwater; reducing the rate of land subsidence; and protecting the groundwater from saltwater intrusion. Practical case studies from Virginia and California will be included.
CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgements
Author
Conversions
Acronyms and Abbreviations
CHAPTER 1 THE UPSIDE-DOWN SOMBRERO
Introduction
About 33 to 35 Million Years Ago
A Whole Bunch of Shock and Very Little Awe
Meteorite Terms
The Earth-Changing Event
Effects of the Chesapeake Bay Bolide Impact
Location of Chesapeake Bay
River Diversion
Ground Instability Due to Faulting
Disruption of Coastal Aquifers
Land Subsidence
The Bottom Line
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 2 Soil Basics
Introduction
Soil what is it?
Key Terms Defined
All about Soil
Functions of Soil
Soil as a Plant Growth Medium
Soil as a Regulator of Water Supplies
Soil as a Recycler of Raw Materials
Soil as a Habitat for soil Organisms
Soil as an Engineering Medium
Soil as a Source of Materials
Concurrent Soil Functions
Soil Basics
Physical Properties of Soil
Soil Separates
Soil Formation
Weathering
Factors that Influence Weathering
Categories of Weathering Processes
Soil Characterization
Diagnostic Horizons, Temperature, and Moisture Regimes
Soil Taxonomy
Soil Orders
Soil Suborders
Soil Great Groups and Subgroups
Soil Families and Series
The Bottom Line
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 3 The Science of Soil Mechanics
Soil Mechanics
Weight-Volume or Space and Volume Relationships
Soil Particles Characteristics
Soil Stress
Soil Compressibility
Soil Compaction
Soil Failure
Soil Water
Water and Soil
Water: What is it?
Water Physical Properties
The Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)
Soil Water
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 4 Basic Water Hydraulics
What is Water Hydraulics?
Basic Concepts
Stevin’s Law
Density and Specific Gravity
Force and Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure
Effects of Water under Pressure
Head
Static Head
Friction Head
Velocity Head
Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head)
Pressure and Head
Head and Pressure
Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion
Area and Velocity
Pressure and Velocity
Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem
Conservation of Energy
Energy Head
Piezometric Surface
Head Loss
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
Bernoulli’s Theorem
Bernoulli’s Equation
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 5 Groundwater Hydraulics
Groundwater
Unconfined Aquifers
Saturated Zone
Capillary Fringe
Unsaturated Zone
Capillarity
Hydrologic Properties of Water-Bearing Materials
Porosity
Primary Porosity
Secondary Porosity
Controlling Porosity of Granular Materials
Void Ratio
Permeability
Intrinsic Permeability
Hydraulic Conductivity
Transmissivity
Water Yielding and Retaining Capacity
Specific Yield
Specific Retention
Confined Aquifers
Steady Flow of Groundwater
Darcy’s Law
Velocity
Groundwater Flow and Effects of Pumping
The 411 on Wells
Shallow Wells
Deep Wells
Components of a Production Well
Well Hydraulics
Basic Well Hydraulics
Well Drawdown Calculations
Well Yield Calculations
Specific Yield Calculations
Depleting the Groundwater Bank Account
Overdrawing the Groundwater Bank Account
The Bottom Line
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 6 Land Subsidence
Vanishing Land
Withdrawal from the Groundwater Bank Account
Effective Stress
Preconsolidation Stress
Aquitards Role in Compaction
Subsidence Model of Antelope Valley
Subsidence in Silicon Valley
Mining Groundwater in the San Joaquin Valley
Coastal Subsidence in Houston-Galveston Area
In the "Meadows": Gambling is More than a Game
Ground Failures
Reduced Storage Capacity
Earth Fissures and Subsidence in South-Central Arizona
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 7 The Vanishing of Hampton Roads
Introduction
Hampton Roads: Sea Level Rise
Global Warming
Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
Factors Involved with Global Warming/Cooling
How is Climate Change Measured?
Global Warming and Sea Level Rise
Major Physical Effects of Sea Level Rise
Major Direct Human Effects of Sea Level Rise
Land Subsidence in Hampton Roads
Why Land Subsidence is a Concern in the Chesapeake Bay Region
Land Subsidence Contributes to Relative Sea Level Rise
Land Subsidence Increases Flooding Risk
Land Subsidence Can Damage Wetland and Coastal Marsh Ecosystems
Land Subsidence Can Damage Infrastructure
Aquifer Compaction
Glacial Isostatic Adjustment
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 8 Measuring and Monitoring Land Subsidence
Measuring Subsidence
Borehole Extensometers
Tidal Stations
Geodetic Survey
InSAR
Importance of Land Subsidence Monitoring
Monitoring Methods
Borehole Extensometers—Ongoing Monitoring
Geodetic Surveying—Ongoing Monitoring 2016
Tidal Stations—Ongoing Monitoring 2016
Remote Sensing—Ongoing Monitoring 2016
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 9 Every Problem has a Solution
Hampton Roads Sanitation District (HRSD)
The Solution to Pollution in Chesapeake Bay
The Problem
Objectives
The Nansemond Treatment Plant Extensometer Plan
Extensometer Station Design
Extensometer Station Monitoring Program
The Plan
The Bottom Line
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 10 Potomac Aquifer System
Introduction
The Potomac Formation
Injection Wells
Subsidence Control Wells
Injection Well Hydraulics
Injection Operation
Injection Well Capacity Estimation
Estimating Specific Capacity and Injectivity
Available Head for Injection
Flexibility for Adjusting Injection Well Capacities
Number of Injection Wells Required at each Wastewater Treatment Plant
Aquifer Injection Modeling
Mathematical Modeling
Groundwater Flow Modeling
Modeling Results
Army Base Treatment Plant
Boat Harbor Treatment Plant
James River Treatment Plant
Nansemond Treatment Plant
Virginia Initiative Plant
Williamsburg Treatment Plant
York River Treatment Plant
Sensitivity of Aquifer Parameters
Transmissivity
Storage Coefficient
Injection Rates
Simulation Duration
Static Water Elevations
Well Interference
Hampton Roads Region Groundwater Flow
Model Injection Rates
Model Duration
The Bottom Line
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 11 Native Groundwater and Injectate Compatibility
Introduction
HRSD’s Water Management Vision
Geochemical Challenges Facing SWIFT Project
Reduction in Injectivity
Physical Plugging
Mineral Precipitation
Geochemical Concerns
Damaging Clay Minerals
Mineral precipitation
Mineral Dissolution
Water Quality and Aquifer Mineralogy
Injectate Water Chemistry
Reverse Osmosis
Nanofiltration
Biologically Activated Carbon
Native Groundwater
Upper Potomac Aquifer Zone
Middle Potomac Aquifer Zone
Lower Potomac Aquifer Zone
Geochemical Assessment of Injectate and Groundwater Chemistry
Lithology of the Potomac Aquifer System
Lithology
City of Chesapeake Aquifer Storage and Recovery Facility Core Samples
Mineralogy—Geochemical Modeling
Stability of Clay Minerals
Simulated Injectate—Water Interactions
Mixing
Mixing Injectate and Native Groundwater
Mixing in the Injection Wellbore
Injectate and Aquifer Mineral Reactions
Siderite Dissolution
Pyrite Oxidation
Mitigating Pyrite Oxidation
The Bottom Line
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 12 Feasibility of Advanced Water Purification Processes
Introduction
By the Book Only, Please!
Those Playing by the Book in Indirect Potable
Additional Drinking Water Considerations
Injectate Water Quality Concerns
Advanced Water Treatment Processes
Treatment Plant Effluent Water Quality
Data Sources for Evaluation
Data Evaluation
Advanced Treatment Product Water Quality
Inorganic Water Quality
Organic Water Quality
Bulk Organics
Trace Organics
RO Concentrate Disposal
Pathogen Removal
Disinfection By-Products
Anticipated Improvements to HRSD’s Existing WWTPs
The Bottom Line
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 13 Membrane Concentrate Management
Introduction
Evaluation Results
Regulatory Setting for Surface Water Discharges
Potential Future Membrane Concentrate Permit Requirements
Discharges in Accordance with Permits Allowing Similar Pollutant Discharge
Discharges Based on Additional Concentrate Treatment to Reduce Key Pollutants
Treatment of Reverse Osmosis/Nanofiltration Concentration
Treatment Requirements Based on Discharge Objectives
Discharge in Accordance with Current Permits
Discharges Based on Additional Concentrate Treatment
Nutrient Discharge Comparison for Current and Projected Treatment Options
Projected Pollutant Loading from Treatment Options
The Bottom Line
References and Recommended Reading
CHAPTER 14 Cost Estimates
Introduction
Cost Estimating Approach
Treatment Trains
Injection Well Facilities
Approach and Assumptions
Standard Project Analysis
Capital Cost Plant Facility Model
Injection Well Facility Costs
Operations and Maintenance Costs
Design Criteria
Cost Estimates
Capital and Annual Operating Costs
Net Present Value
Define Period Analysis
Calculate Annual Cash Flows
Select a Discount Rate
Calculate the Present Value
Net Present Value for each AWT Train
The Bottom Line
References and Recommended Reading
Afterword or Beforehand
Glossary
Biography
Frank R. Spellman, PhD, is a retired assistant professor of environmental health at Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, and the author of more than 110 books covering topics ranging from concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) to all areas of environmental science and occupational health. Many of his texts are readily available online, and several have been adopted for classroom use at major universities throughout the United States, Canada, Europe, and Russia; two have been translated into Spanish for South American markets. Dr. Spellman has been cited in more than 850- publications. He serves as a professional expert witness for three law groups and as an incident/accident investigator for the U.S. Department of Justice and a northern Virginia law firm. In addition, he consults on homeland security vulnerability assessments for critical infrastructures including water/wastewater facilities nationwide and conducts pre-Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)/Environmental Protection Agency EPA audits throughout the country. Dr. Spellman receives frequent requests to co-author with well-recognized experts in several scientific fields; for example, he is a contributing author of the prestigious text The Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed. (CRC Press). Dr. Spellman lectures on sewage treatment, water treatment, biosolids and homeland security and lectures and safety topics throughout the country and teaches water/wastewater operator short courses at Virginia Tech (Blacksburg, Virginia). He holds a BA, in public administration, a BS in business management, an MBA, and an MS and PhD in environmental engineering.