1st Edition
Integrated Watershed Management in Rainfed Agriculture
This book provides a comprehensive presentation of the realization of improved rainfed agriculture yield in semi-arid and dry land areas. The incentive of watershed programs is to increase the return on investment with over 20% for 65% of the projects that are currently underperforming. Besides techniques to improve the livelihood of the many small-scale farmers in developing countries, it includes examples and case studies for further support. The methods discussed have recently shown to be successful and economically remunerative in India and in various African countries.
Intended for professionals (investors, policy makers), researchers and (post) graduate students working on dry land and sustainable agriculture and water and natural resources management. Suited for courses in dry land agriculture, soil and water management and watershed development.
Preface
Foreword
List of contributors
1 Improving livelihoods in rainfed areas through integrated watershed management: A development perspective
1.1 Introduction and overview
1.2 The semi-arid tropics and the importance of rainfed farming
1.3 The objectives of watershed management
1.4 The main experience
1.5 Understanding the nature of rural poverty
1.5.1 Landlessness
1.5.2 Women
1.5.3 Subsistence
1.5.4 Debt and awareness
1.5.5 Health
1.5.6 Human rights
1.5.7 Environment
1.5.8 Trends
1.5.9 Assistance
1.5.10 Equity and inclusion
1.5.11 Migration
1.5.12 Case study
1.5.13 Indicators of progress
1.6 Four stages to pull a rural community out of poverty
1.6.1 The Process
1.6.1.1 Stage 1
1.6.1.2 Stage 2
1.6.1.3 Stage 3
1.6.1.4 Stage 4
1.6.2 Recent improvements
1.6.3 Community resource centers
1.6.4 Income-generating activities
1.6.5 Second generation interventions: market links
1.6.6 Duration of support and coordination
1.6.7 Better use of the NGOs as collaborators or implementers
1.7 Aspects of the process of watershed implementation
1.7.1 Management of watershed
1.7.2 Groups and Jankars
1.7.3 Savings, loans, and credit
1.7.4 Literacy and numeracy
1.7.5 Expenditure
1.7.6 Land ownership
1.7.7 Spread and dissemination
1.7.8 Lack of spread of locally successful watershed interventions in India
1.7.9 Sustainability
1.7.10 Subsidies and cost contributions
1.8 Technology for the poor
1.8.1 General principles
1.8.1.1 Participatory varietal selection (PVS)
1.8.1.2 Client oriented breeding
1.8.1.3 Seed priming
1.8.1.4 Technologies for women
1.8.1.5 Soil conservation
1.8.1.6 Soil fertility
1.8.1.7 Crop pest control
1.8.1.8 Renewable energy technologies
1.8.1.9 Community empowerment
1.8.2 Water
1.8.3 Trees
1.8.4 Livestock and fodder
1.8.5 Aquaculture
1.9 Future research needs
1.10 Concluding remarks and way forward
References
2 Watershed development as a growth engine for sustainable development of rainfed areas
2.1 Introduction
2.2 A concept of safe operating space for humanity
2.3 Current status of rainfed agriculture
2.4 Vast potential to increase crop yields in rainfed areas
2.5 Improved water productivity is a key to unlock the potential of rainfed agriculture
2.6 Water alone cannot do it
2.7 Integrated watershed management is key for sustainable management of land and water resources and improved livelihoods
References
3 Watershed development for rainfed areas: Concept, principles, and approaches
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Watershed concept
3.3 Importance of land use planning in watershed development
3.4 Criteria for prioritization of watersheds
3.5 Common features of the watershed development model
3.6 Evolution of watershed development approach in India
3.7 Need for a holistic approach for watershed management
3.8 Evolution of the consortium approach
3.9 Components of integrated watershed management
3.9.1 Entry Point Activity
3.9.2 Land and water conservation practices
3.9.3 Integrated pest and nutrient management
3.9.4 Farmers’ participatory research and development trials
3.9.5 Crop diversification and intensification of crops and systems
3.9.6 Use of multiple resources
3.9.7 Capacity building
3.10 Key features of facilitating the consortium approach
3.10.1 Need for a common goal – team building
3.10.2 Building on the strengths
3.10.3 Institutionalization of partnerships
3.10.4 Internal and external institutional arrangements
3.10.5 Dynamic and evolving
3.10.6 Scaling-up/out the approach
3.11 Advantages of consortium approach
3.11.1 Sustainability
3.11.2 Cost-effectiveness
3.11.3 Win-win solution through empowerment of partners
3.11.4 Rapid scaling-up
3.11.5 Change in organizational behavior
3.11.6 Public-private partnerships are facilitated (multiplier effect)
3.12 Learnings from the experience and triggers for success
3.13 Operationalizing community watershed as a growth engine
3.14 Watershed as an entry point to improve livelihoods
3.15 Convergence in watershed
3.16 Multiple benefits from integrated watershed development
3.17 Conclusions
References
4 Equity in watershed development: Imperatives for property rights, resource allocation, and institutions
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 The context
4.1.2 Exclusion of landless and women: Role of CPLRs
4.1.3 Groundwater and equity
4.1.4 Project-based equity
4.1.5 Linkages between technology, allocation of funds, and institutions: The issue of mode
4.1.6 Equity in policy and guidelines
4.1.7 Objectives and approach
4.2 Equity, property rights, and biophysical characteristics
4.2.1 Equity and property relations in land and water
4.2.1.1 Historically embedded inequalities in access to land and water
4.2.1.2 Land: Domains of ownership
4.2.1.3 Ownership, land use, and CPLR
4.2.1.4 Ownership and landlessness
4.2.2 Water: Availability and increasing water scarcity
4.2.2.1 Property relations in water
4.2.2.2 Water is a local and non-local resource
4.2.2.3 Spatial or location inequities
4.2.2.4 How do the biophysical characteristics actually play out?
4.2.3 Water is a common pool resource and has competing uses
4.2.3.1 The meeting of property relations and the biophysical characteristics
4.2.3.2 Watershed also creates conditions for a positive sum game
4.2.4 Efforts to address equity
4.2.4.1 Equity in coverage
4.2.4.2 Targeted approach
4.2.4.3 Common lands
4.2.4.4 Equitable sharing of increased water
4.2.4.5 Produce sharing arrangements
4.2.4.6 Attempts at risk proofing/pooling and sharing arrangements
4.2.5 Main observations
4.3 Funds allocation and subsidies
4.3.1 Nature of watershed treatments among sample villages
4.3.2 Perceived benefits: Sources and beneficiaries
4.3.3 Total number of beneficiaries: Some approximation
4.3.4 Distribution of subsidies and alternative mechanisms
4.3.5 Overall evidence
4.4 Equity and institutions
4.4.1 Criticality of institutional process for equity in watershed
4.4.2 Institutional challenges: Learning from the CPR literature
4.4.3 Institutions within WDPs: Provisions in various guidelines
4.4.4 Learning from the past experience: Taking stock
4.4.4.1 Participatory processes: A larger view
4.4.4.2 SHGs and user groups: A tool for equity
4.4.4.3 CPLRs and institutions
4.4.5 Examples of good practices
4.4.5.1 Streamlining equity consideration: Case of CWDP-Orissa
4.4.5.2 Public-private collaboration for forest development in watersheds: A case of IGWDP in Ahmednagar district 4.4.5.3 Sujala watershed and social regulations
4.4.6 Main observations
4.5 Gender mainstreaming
4.5.1 Enhancing women’s participation and mainstreaming of women SHGs
4.5.2 Promotion of micro-enterprises
4.5.3 Institutional challenges
4.6 Policy implications and way forward
4.6.1 Multi-pronged approach
4.6.2 Policy recommendation
4.6.3 Way forward
References
5 Policies and institutions for increasing benefits of integrated watershed management programs
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Integrated watershed management program in India
5.3 Policy endorsement at macro level
5.4 Watershed development guidelines
5.4.1 The new common guidelines
5.5 Institutional arrangements for watershed development
5.5.1 National Rainfed Area Authority
5.5.2 Central Level Nodal Agency
5.5.3 State Level Nodal Agency
5.5.4 District Watershed Development Unit
5.5.5 Project implementing agency
5.5.6 Watershed Committee
5.5.7 Self-help groups
5.5.8 User groups
5.6 Promoting closer institutional links
5.7 Dealing with policy and institutional constraints
5.7.1 Collective action
5.7.2 Bottom-up approach
5.7.3 Capacity building
5.7.4 Knowledge-based Entry Point Activity
5.7.5 Empowering women and vulnerable groups
5.8 Sustainable watershed management: Role of common guidelines
5.8.1 Institutional responsibilities
5.8.2 Delegation of power to the states
5.8.3 Dedicated institutions
5.8.4 Convergence
5.8.5 Consortium approach
5.8.6 Addressing equity
5.8.7 Project management
5.8.9 Post-project sustainability
5.9 Operationalizing policies
5.10 Conclusions
References
6 Application of new science tools in integrated watershed management for enhancing impacts
6.1 Introduction
6.2 New science tools for watershed management
6.2.1 Geographical information system (GIS)
6.2.2 Remote sensing
6.3 Crop-growth simulation modeling
6.4 Field sensors and data communication devices
6.4.1 Global Positioning System
6.4.2 Automatic Weather Station
6.4.3 Mobile devices
6.5 Data storage and dissemination
6.6 Spatial technologies in rainfed agriculture and watershed management
6.6.1 Characterization of production systems in India
6.6.2 Land use mapping for assessing fallows and cropping intensity
6.6.3 Spatial distribution of rainy season fallows in Madhya Pradesh
6.6.4 Spatial distribution and quantification of rice-fallows in South Asia: Potential for legumes
6.6.5 GIS mapping of spatial variability of soil micronutrients at district level
6.6.6 Assessment of seasonal rainfall forecasting and climate risk management options for peninsular India
6.6.7 Baseline studies to delineate watershed
6.6.8 Regional-scale water budgeting for SAT India
6.6.9 Spatial water balance modeling of watersheds
6.7 Integrated watershed management for land and water conservation and sustainable agricultural production in Asia
6.7.1 Assessment of agroclimatic potential
6.7.2 Climatic water balance
6.7.3 Climatic water balance of watersheds in China, Thailand, Vietnam, and India
6.7.4 Rainfed length of growing period
6.7.5 Drought monitoring at watersheds
6.7.6 Weather forecasting for agriculture
6.7.7 Watershed monitoring
6.7.8 Satellite images for impact assessment
6.7.9 Monitoring and evaluation of NWDPRA watersheds using remote sensing
6.7.10 Monitoring and impact assessment of Adarsha watershed
6.8 Technology integration
6.8.1 Field data transmission
6.8.2 Sensor Web
6.8.3 Spatial simulation modeling
6.8.4 Use of ICT in watershed management
6.8.5 Intelligent watershed information system
6.9 Summary and conclusions
References
7 Soil and water conservation for optimizing productivity and improving livelihoods in rainfed areas
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Soil and water conservation practices
7.2.1 In-situ soil and water conservation
7.2.1.1 Contour cultivation and conservation furrows
7.2.1.2 Tied ridges
7.2.1.3 Scoops (or pitting)
7.2.1.4 Broad-bed and furrow and related systems
7.2.2 Bunding
7.2.2.1 Contour bunding
7.2.2.2 Modified contour bunds
7.2.2.3 Graded bunding
7.2.2.4 Field bunding
7.2.2.5 Compartmental bunding
7.2.2.6 Vegetative barriers
7.2.3 Tillage
7.2.3.1 Zero tillage or minimum tillage or conservation tillage
7.2.4 Ex-situ soil and water conservation (runoff harvesting and supplemental irrigation)
7.2.4.1 Crop responses to supplemental irrigation
7.2.5 Indigenous soil and rainwater conservation practices
7.3 Enhancing the impacts of soil and water conservation and water harvesting interventions through integrated watershed approach
7.4 Strategies for improving adoption of soil and water conservation practices by farmers
7.5 Conclusions
References
8 Rainwater harvesting improves returns on investment in smallholder agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The need to respond to the threat of climate change
8.3 Policies and institutional frameworks
8.4 Why focus on rainwater harvesting?
8.5 Options for rainwater harvesting
8.5.1 RWH from surface runoff and storage in ponds, pans, and tanks (blue water)
8.5.2 Rooftop rainwater harvesting
8.5.3 Small earth dams and weirs
8.5.4 Sand and subsurface dams
8.5.5 Runoff harvesting and storage in soil profile
8.5.6 In-situ water harvesting and conservation
8.5.7 Spateflow diversion and utilization
8.5.8 Conservation agriculture and RWH
8.5.9 Soil fertility management in supporting RWH efforts
8.5.10 Water for livestock
8.5.11 Socioeconomic issues in RWH
8.6 Conclusions
8.7 Way forward
8.7.1 Support rainwater harvesting
8.7.1.1 Optimizing rainwater harvesting (Integrated watershed management)
8.7.1.2 Runoff harvesting, diversions, and storage in soil profile
8.7.1.3 Small individual water storages in ponds, pans, and tanks
8.7.1.4 Medium-scale storage
8.7.1.5 Rainwater harvesting for underground storages
8.7.2 Provide secure rights to access land and water
8.7.3 Adoption of innovative financing for smallholder farmers
8.7.4 Interactive capacity strengthening for RWH
8.7.5 Enhance policy support
8.7.6 Recommendations
References
9 Management of emerging multinutrient deficiencies: A prerequisite for sustainable enhancement of rainfed agricultural productivity
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Soil degradation – organic matter and nutrient status of SAT soils
9.3 Balanced nutrient management: Crop productivity and quality
9.4 Soil quality and water use efficiency
9.5 Strategy for scaling-up the soil test-based approach for enhancing agricultural productivity
9.6 General discussion and conclusions
References
10 Increasing crop productivity and water use efficiency in rainfed agriculture
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Water use efficiency: Concepts and definitions
10.3 Water balance of crops in different rainfed regions
10.4 Gaps in productivity and water use efficiency
10.5 Integrated approach to enhance productivity and water use efficiency
10.6 Rainfall management to secure water availability
10.6.1 In-situ soil and water conservation
10.6.1.1 Land surface management
10.6.1.2 Tillage
10.6.1.3 Conservation agriculture
10.6.2 Water harvesting and groundwater recharge
10.7 Increasing water use and water use efficiency
10.7.1 Efficient supplemental irrigation
10.7.1.1 Conveyance of water to the field
10.7.1.2 Methods of application of supplemental water on SAT Vertisols
10.7.1.3 Efficient application of supplemental water on SAT Alfisols
10.7.1.4 Scheduling of irrigation and deficit irrigation
10.7.1.5 Conjunctive use of rainfall and limited irrigation water
10.7.1.6 Supplemental irrigation and crop intensification or diversification
10.7.2 Increasing soil water uptake
10.7.2.1 Improved crop agronomy
10.7.2.2 Balanced plant nutrition
10.7.2.3 Improved crop varieties and nutrient management
10.7.2.4 Water conservation practices and nutrient management
10.7.2.5 Crop protection
10.2.7.6 Crop intensification (double cropping)
10.7.2.7 Crop diversification with chickpea in rice fallows
10.7.2.8 Contingent and dynamic cropping
10.7.3 Reducing soil evaporation
10.7.3.1 Mulches
10.7.3.2 Microclimate modifications
10.7.3.3 Land degradation, conservation agriculture, and water use efficiency
10.7.4 Crop breeding for increased water productivity
10.8 Promoting adoption of technologies
10.8.1 Enabling policies
10.8.2 Building institutions
10.8.3 Raising awareness and capacity building
10.9 Summary and conclusions
References
11 Impact of watershed projects in India: Application of various approaches and methods
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 An overview of watershed development programs in India
11.1.2 Synthesis of past experience of watershed development in India
11.1.3 Need for economic impact assessment of watershed
11.1.4 Challenges in impact assessment of watershed development
11.1.4.1 Methods of impact assessment
11.1.4.2 Approaches of impact assessment
11.1.4.3 Scale or time lags
11.1.4.4 Samples for the study
11.1.4.5 Selection of indicators
11.1.4.6 Choosing the discount rate
11.1.5 Indicators for evaluation of watershed development projects
11.2 Approaches
11.2.1 Before and after
11.2.2 With and without
11.2.3 Combination of with and without using double difference method
11.3 Methodologies: Application of watershed evaluation methods
11.3.1 Conventional benefit-cost analysis
11.3.2 Econometric methods (Economic surplus approach)
11.3.2.1 Application of economic surplus method to watershed evaluation
11.3.2.2 Cost of project
11.3.2.3 Results of the economic surplus method
11.3.3 Bioeconomic modeling approach
11.3.3.1 Advantages of bioeconomic modeling in impact assessment studies
11.3.3.2 Application of bioeconomic model for impact evaluation of watershed development program in semi-arid tropics of India
11.3.3.3 Biophysical and socioeconomic data
11.3.3.4 Bioeconomic modeling
11.3.3.5 Validation of the bioeconomic model
11.3.3.6 Impact of change in yield of dryland crops
11.3.3.7 Impact of change in irrigated area in the watershed
11.3.4 Meta analysis
11.3.4.1 Review of studies on meta analysis
11.3.4.2 Biophysical impacts
11.3.4.3 Socioeconomic impacts
11.3.4.4 Environmental impacts
11.3.4.5 Overall economic impacts
11.3.5 Comparison of the methods
11.4 Conclusions and policy recommendations
References
12 Watershed management through a resilience lens
12.1 Watershed management in smallholder rainfed agroecosystems
12.2 Embedding smallholder farming in landscape ecosystem services
12.2.1 Introduction to management successes and failures
12.2.2 Smallholder agroecosystems and ecosystem services
12.2.3 Watershed (landscape) management “successes”
12.2.4 Summary of selected cases
12.2.5 Academic reviews of unmanaged case studies
12.2.6 Additional case studies
12.2.7 Landscape limits and trade-offs between ecosystem services
12.2.8 Long-term sustainability and the hidden impacts of management successes and failures
12.3 Impacts on ecosystem services and the relationship to barriers to development of sustainable ecosystem services
12.3.1 Impacts on system stability as obstacles in smallholder rainfed agroecosystems
12.3.2 Understanding barriers as parts of ecosystem processes
12.3.3 Climate change as an over-arching pressure
12.3.4 Barriers for development reinterpreted as management opportunities
12.4 Understanding successes and long-term agroecosystem stability
12.3.3 Introduction to agroecosystem stability
12.4.2 Resilience defined
12.4.3 Drivers of system stability
12.4.4 Tipping points and regime shifts
12.4.5 Defining key system components and processes
12.4.6 Interpreting successes in terms of overall agroecosystem stability
12.5 Identifying management entry points using a resilience frame
12.5.1 Management entry points – learning from case studies
12.5.2 Recommendations for future research
12.5.3 Resources to assist practitioners
References
13 Impacts of climate change on rainfed agriculture and adaptation strategies to improve livelihoods
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Climate change impacts
13.2.1 Crop and livestock production
13.2.2 Water resources
13.3 Regional impacts
13.3.1 Sub-Saharan Africa
13.3.2 South Asia
13.4 Prices, poverty, and malnutrition
13.5 Adaptation
13.5.1 Coping, adaptation, and resilience
13.5.2 Adaptation strategies
13.6 Conclusions
References
Index
Colour plates
Biography
Suhas P. Wani, Johan Rockstrom, Kanwar Lal Sahrawat