1st Edition

Cyanide in Water and Soil Chemistry, Risk, and Management

    616 Pages 142 B/W Illustrations
    by CRC Press

    The presence of cyanide is a significant issue in industrial and municipal wastewater treatment and management, in remediation of former manufactured gas plant sites and aluminum production waste disposal sites, in treatment and management of residuals from hydrometallurgical gold mining, and in other industrial operations in which cyanide-bearing wastes were produced. The complexity of the chemistry and toxicology of cyanide and the risk it poses in different environmental contexts make its management and remediation extremely challenging. Cyanide in Water and Soil is the first book to present the state-of-the-art in managing cyanide across a wide range of industrial and environmental contexts.

    The book brings together current knowledge and information about cyanide release to and behavior in the environment, and explores how to control or remediate these releases. No other broad-based examination of this topic exists. Exploring the anthropogenic and natural sources of cyanide in the environment, the authors address the full range of issues pertaining to cyanide fate, transport, treatment, and toxicity in water and soil as well as approaches currently used in risk assessment and management. They have developed a careful balance of depth and scope of coverage, providing current references that help readers learn more about topics of particular interest.

    An array of technologies is available for the treatment of cyanide in surface water and groundwater, wastewaters, and contaminated soils and sludges. These technologies span the gamut of biological, chemical, electrolytic, physical, and thermal treatment processing. Presenting examples of applications of the technologies employed most commonly in municipal and industrial settings, the book is a useful reference tool for engineers, scientists, practitioners, and researchers in academia, industrial organizations, government, and engineering and science consulting firms.

    Introduction


    Cyanide in History
    Cyanide Chemical Structure
    Cyanide and the Origin of Life
    Ubiquity of Cyanide Compounds in Nature
    Cyanide in Industry
    Cyanide Releases to Water and Soil
    Cyanide: Chemistry, Risk and Management
    Cyanide Regulations
    Cyanide Treatment Technology
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FORMS OF CYANIDE
    Gaseous Forms of Cyanide
    Aqueous Forms of Cyanide
    Solid Forms of Cyanide
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    Natural Sources of Cyanide


    Cyanide in Vascular Plants
    Cyanide in Microorganisms
    Cyanide in Animals
    Cyanide in Forest Fires
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    Manufacture and the Use of Cyanide


    Production of Cyanide Compounds
    Incidental Industrial Production of Cyanide
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND REACTIVITY OF CYANIDE IN WATER AND SOIL
    Free Cyanide
    Metal Cyanides: Aqueous Species
    Metal-Cyanides: Solid Phase Compounds
    Cyanate
    Thiocyanate
    Organocyanides
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    Biological Transformation of Cyanide in Water and Soil


    Microbial Degradation
    Fungal Degradation
    Pathways for Fungal Degradation of Cyanogenic Compounds
    Bacterial Assimilation
    Fungal Assimilation
    Botanical Transformation Processes
    Environmental Impacts of Cyanide Assimilation
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    ANALYSIS OF CYANIDE IN WATER
    Interferences and Pretreatments
    Total Cyanide Measurement Techniques
    Weak Metal-Cyanide Complexes
    Metal Cyanide Complex Analysis by Liquid Chormatography
    Free Cyanide Analysis
    Thiocyanate and Cyanate Measurement Techniques
    Cyanogen Halide Analysis
    Organocyanide Measurement Techniques
    Comparative Method Performance
    Quality Control Criteria for Measurement of Cyanide in Water
    Measuring Cyanides – A Regulatory Dilemma
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    Analysis of Cyanide in Solids and Semi-Solids


    Direct Acid Distillation
    Acid Solution Extraction
    Neutral Solution Extraction
    Alkaline Solution Extraction
    Effect of Extraction Solution pH
    Effect of Liquid-Solid Ratio
    Effect of Extraction Time
    Extraction of Plant and Animal Tissue, and other Semi-Solid Materials
    Quality Control and Method Performance Evaluation
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    FATE AND TRANSPORT OF ANTHROPOGENIC CYANIDE IN SURFACE WATER
    Synoptic Review of Cyanide Speciation and Toxicity
    Primary Cyanide Fate-Determining Environmental Processes
    Prediction and Assessment of Exposure to Cyanide
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    FATE AND TRANSPORT OF ANTHROPOGENIC CYANIDE IN SOIL AND GROUNDWATER
    Distribution and Speciation of Cyanide at Industrial Sites
    Impact of Site Geochemistry on Speciation and Distribution of Cyanide
    Important Fate Processes for Cyanide
    Transport of Cyanide in Soil and Groundwater at Contaminated Sites
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    ANTHROPOGENIC CYANIDE IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
    Wastewater Discharges to Coastal Waters
    Use of Cyanide for Capturing Live Reef Fish
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    Cyanide Cycle in Nature
    Global Output of Cyanide
    Physical, Chemical and Biological Processes that Influence Environmental Fate of Cyanide
    Why Doesn’t Cyanide Build-up in Nature?
    Cycling of Anthropogenic Cyanide in Nature
    Combined Natural and Anthropogenic Cyanide Cycle
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    Human Toxicology of Cyanide
    Exposure
    Sites of Action
    Symptoms and Signs Caused by Cyanide
    Generation and Metabolism of Cyanide in Body Tissues
    Mechanisms of Cyanide Toxicity
    Cyanide Antidotes
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    AQUATIC TOXICITY OF CYANIDE


    Mechanisms of Toxicity
    Cyanide Bioavailability
    Toxicity to Freshwater Biota
    Toxicity to Marine Biota
    Regulatory Criteria for Protection of Aquatic Life
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    TOXICITY OF CYANIDE TO AQUATIC-DEPENDENT WILDLIFE
    Distribution of Cyanide in the Environment
    Exposure Pathways
    Mechanisms of Toxicity
    Literature Review Methods and Scope
    Data Analysis
    Discussion
    Bioaccumulation of Cyanide
    Toxicity Thresholds for Cyanide
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT OF CYANIDE COMPOUNDS IN WATER AND SOIL
    Environmental Concentrations and Exposure Pathways
    Exposure Pathways
    Toxicity Evaluation
    Risk Characteristics
    Recommendations
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF CYANIDE IN WATER AND SOIL


    Problem Formulation
    Ecological Effects Assessment
    Ecological Exposure Assessment
    Risk Characterization
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    REGULATION OF CYANIDE IN WATER AND SOIL


    U.S. Regulations and Guidelines for Cyanide in Water
    Regulatory Standards, Guidelines, and Criteria for Solid Matrices – Soil, Sediment and Process Residuals
    International Regulatory Standards for Cyanide in Water and Soil
    Technical/Regulatory Issues
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    Cyanide Treatment Technology:  Overview


    Technology Selection
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    AMBIENT TEMPERATURE OXIDATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR TREATMENT OF CYANIDE
    Alkaline Chlorination Technologies
    Oxidation Technologies with Ozone and Hydrogen Peroxide
    Photocatalytic Oxidation Technology
    Inco’S Air/SO2 Process
    Additional Technologies
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR TREATMENT OF CYANIDE


    Adsorption Technologies
    Precipitation Technologies
    Air Stripping
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    THERMAL AND HIGH TEMPERATURE OXIDATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR TREATMENT OF CYANIDE
    High Temperature Alkaline Hydrolysis
    High Temperature Alkaline Chlorination
    Incineration/Thermal Treatment
    Electrolytic Decomposition or Oxidation
    Polysulfide Process
    Wet Air Oxidation
    Other Thermal Technologies
    Thermal Technology Overview
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    MICROBIOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR TREATMENT OF CYANIDE


    Process Fundamentals
    Wastewater Treatment Process Configurations
    Full-Scale Application of Biological Treatment for Cyanide in Gold Mining
    Biological Treatment of Solid Wastes Containing Cyanide
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    Cyanide Phytoremediation
    Phytoremediation: An Emerging Biotechnology
    Cyanide Contamination in the Environment
    Feasibility of Cyanide Phytoremediation
    Modeling Cyanide Uptake and Fate in Plants
    Cyanide Phytoremediation: Limitations and Challenges
    Possible Scenarios for Cyanide Phytoremediation
    Regulatory Concerns
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    Management of Cyanide in Municipal Wastewaters


    Sources of Cyanide in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Influent
    Fate of Cyanide in Municipal Wastewater Treatment
    Generation of Cyanide in Municipal Wastewater Treatment
    Management Strategies for Low-Level Cyanide in Discharges from POTWs
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    MANAGEMENT OF CYANIDE IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESS WASTEWATERS


    Management Strategy
    Examples of Cyanide Management in Industrial Wastewaters
    Summary and Conclusions
    References
    CYANIDE MANAGEMENT IN GROUNDWATER AND SOIL
    Groundwater Management
    Management of Cyanide-Impacted Soil and/or Residuals
    Case Studies
    Summary and Conclusions
    References

    Biography

    David A. Dzombak, Rajat S. Ghosh, George M. Wong-Chong

    “Thirty-five different authors have contributed 27 chapters … coverage is comprehensive. Cyanide, its problems and solutions and thereto, is well discussed (and very well referenced, with approximately 60 references per chapter … It is well written, and to say the least, extremely comprehensive in the discussion of cyanide problems and solutions.”
    — Gary F. Bennett, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo, Ohio, in Journal of Hazardous Materials, May 2006