1st Edition

X-Ray Metrology in Semiconductor Manufacturing

By D. Keith Bowen, Brian K. Tanner Copyright 2006
    296 Pages 152 B/W Illustrations
    by CRC Press

    The scales involved in modern semiconductor manufacturing and microelectronics continue to plunge downward. Effective and accurate characterization of materials with thicknesses below a few nanometers can be achieved using x-rays. While many books are available on the theory behind x-ray metrology (XRM), X-Ray Metrology in Semiconductor Manufacturing is the first book to focus on the practical aspects of the technology and its application in device fabrication and solving new materials problems.

    Following a general overview of the field, the first section of the book is organized by application and outlines the techniques that are best suited to each. The next section delves into the techniques and theory behind the applications, such as specular x-ray reflectivity, diffraction imaging, and defect mapping. Finally, the third section provides technological details of each technique, answering questions commonly encountered in practice. The authors supply real examples from the semiconductor and magnetic recording industries as well as more than 150 clearly drawn figures to illustrate the discussion. They also summarize the principles and key information about each method with inset boxes found throughout the text.

    Written by world leaders in the field, X-Ray Metrology in Semiconductor Manufacturing provides real solutions with a focus on accuracy, repeatability, and throughput.

    THE APPLICATIONS

    Introduction
    Scope of X-Ray Metrology (XRM)
    Specular X-Ray Reflectivity (XRR)
    Diffuse Scatter
    X-Ray Diffraction
    High-Resolution X-Ray Diffraction
    Diffraction Imaging and Defect Mapping
    X-Ray Fluorescence
    Summary
    Thickness Metrology
    Introduction
    Dielectrics and Metals
    Multiple Layers
    Epitaxial Layers
    Summary
    Composition and Phase Metrology
    Introduction
    Amorphous Films
    Polycrystalline Films
    Wafers and Epitaxial Films
    Summary
    References
    Strain and Stress Metrology
    Introduction
    Strain and Stress in Polycrystalline Layers
    Relaxation of Epitaxial Layers
    Thin Strained Silicon Layers
    Whole Wafer Defect Metrology
    Summary
    References
    Mosaic Metrology
    Grain Size Measurement
    Mosaic Structure in Substrate Wafers
    Mosaic Structure in Epilayers
    Summary
    References
    Interface Roughness Metrology
    Interface Width and Roughness
    Distinction of Roughness and Grading
    Roughness Determination in Semiconductors
    Roughness Determination in Metallic Films
    Roughness Determination in Dielectrics
    Summary
    References
    Porosity Metrology
    Determination of Porosity
    Determination of Pore Size and Distribution
    Pores in Single Crystals
    Summary
    References

    THE SCIENCE

    Specular X-Ray Reflectivity
    Principles
    Specular Reflectivity from a Single Ideal Interface
    Specular Reflectivity from a Single Graded or Rough Interface
    Specular Reflectivity from a Single Thin Film on a Substrate
    Specular Reflectivity from Multiple Layers on a Substrate
    Summary
    References
    X-Ray Diffuse Scattering
    Origin of Diffuse Scatter from Surfaces and Interfaces
    The Born Approximation
    The Distorted-Wave Born Approximation
    Effect of Interface Parameters on Diffuse Scatter
    Multiple-Layer Structures
    Diffuse Scatter Represented in Reciprocal Space
    Summary
    References
    Theory of XRD on Polycrystals
    Introduction
    Kinematical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction
    Determination of Strain
    Determination of Grain Size
    Texture
    Reciprocal Space Geometry
    Summary
    References
    High-Resolution XRD on Single Crystals
    Introduction
    Dynamical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction
    The Determination of Epilayer Parameters
    High-Resolution Diffraction in Real and Reciprocal Space
    Summary
    References
    Diffraction Imaging and Defect Mapping
    Introduction
    Contrast in X-Ray Diffraction Imaging (XRDI)
    Spatial Resolution in XRDI
    X-Ray Defect Imaging Methods
    Example Applications
    Summary
    References

    THE TECHNOLOGY

    Modeling and Analysis
    What Has Been Measured?
    Direct Methods
    Data-Fitting Methods
    The Differential Evolution Method
    Requirements for Automated Analysis
    Summary
    References
    Instrumentation
    Introduction
    X-Ray Sources
    X-Ray Optics
    Mechanical Technology
    Detectors
    Practical Realizations
    Summary
    References
    Accuracy and Precision of X-Ray Metrology
    Introduction
    Design of X-Ray Metrology
    Repeatability and Reproducibility
    Accuracy and Trueness
    Repeatability and Throughput
    Absolute Tool Matching
    Specimen-Induced Limitations
    Summary
    References
    INDEX

    Biography

    D. Keith Bowen, Brian K. Tanner